Potential of Bipolaris
bicolor in Combination with Ametryn for Inhibition of Glyphosate-Resistant
Goosegrass (Eleusine indica) Biotypes
1Institute
of Graduate Studies (IPSis), Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam,
Selangor, Malaysia
2Faculty
of Plantation and Agrotechnology, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 02600 Arau,
Perlis, Malaysia
3Faculty
of Plantation and Agrotechnology, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 77300
Merlimau, Melaka, Malaysia
4Faculty
of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), 43400 Serdang, Selangor,
Malaysia
*For
correspondence: chuahts@uitm.edu.my; namia.af@gmail.com
Received 25 May 2021;
Accepted 13 September 2021; Published 28 February 2022
Abstract
Fungal pathogens have been investigated previously for biological
control of goosegrass (Eleusine indica), but there is little
research on the compatibility of herbicides with fungal pathogen Bipolaris
bicolor for control of glyphosate-resistant E. indica. The aims of
this study were to 1) examine the in vitro compatibility of Bipolaris
bicolor and three herbicides (ametryn, flumiozaxin and sodium chlorate) and
2) determine the efficacy of a combination of B. bicolor and ametryn for
inhibiting glyphosate-resistant E. indica biotypes in the greenhouse.
Mycelial growth inhibition area was measured after B. bicolor spores
were treated with ametryn, flumiozaxin, or sodium chlorate at one-fifth of
their recommended rates. The findings showed that ametryn had the lowest
inhibitory effect (10%), while flumioxazin and sodium chlorate had 80 and 30%
inhibition, respectively, indicating that ametryn is the most compatible herbicide
with B. bicolor. E. indica seedlings were then subjected to four
treatments, including non-treated plants, at the 3 to 4-leaf stage where T1:
negative control plant, T2: one-fifteenth of the recommended dose of ametryn,
T3: B. bicolor spore suspension and T4: ametryn plus B. bicolor
spore suspension. B. bicolor in combination with ametryn was the most
effective treatment for E. indica inhibition one week after treatment.
The treatment reduced seedling height, leaf greenness and shoot dry weight by
50 to 94% and caused plant death seven days after treatment. These findings
suggest that B. bicolor in combination with ametryn is a viable
integrated strategy to control the glyphosate-resistant E. indica
biotype. © 2022 Friends Science Publishers
Keyword: Spore; Flumioxazin; Sodim
chlorate; Synergistic
Introduction
Eleusine indica L.
Gaertn., also known as goosegrass is
primarily an agricultural and environmental weed (Randall 2012). It is one of
the world's five most problematic weeds, affecting the productivity of 46
different crop species in over 60 countries (Holm et al.
1977). Since it has no root at the
nodes, E. indica can be easily removed by hoeing in the early stages of
growth. However, when the E. indica matures, a solid root structure
forms in the soil, making manual removing difficult. It can withstand a wide
range of salt stress, pH and water stress (Ismail et al. 2002, 2003;
Chauhan and Johnson 2008). Furthermore, after two years, E. indica seed
buried at a depth of 20 cm still had 79% viability (Chuah et al. 2004a).
Glyphosate in combination with fluzifop or sethoxydim
(Chuah et al. 2004b), ametryn combined with glufosinate (Chuah et al.
2008a) and tank mixing of monosodium methanearsonate and diuron (Sim et
al. 2018) have been effective against E. indica. However, due to
antagonistic behaviour, a mixture of glyphosate and glufosinate is not
recommended for E. indica (Chuah et al. 2008b). Herbicide
resistance in E. indica has evolved as a result of the excessive use of
the same herbicides. For example, paraquat, glufosinate, fluazifop-butyl and
glyphosate resistance has been demonstrated in E. indica (Dilipkumar et
al. 2020). Adopting a diverse integrated weed control strategy that
combines chemical, biological, and physical approaches could help to delay the
evolution of herbicide resistance (Harker and O’Donovan 2013). Several
studies have been done to minimize herbicide use for delaying the evolution of
herbicide-resistant E. indica (Chuah and Kent 2021a,
2021b). For instance, the emergence and shoot growth of E. indica were inhibited by 85 to 100%
when treated with oil palm frond (OPF) residues at 3 t/ha, implying the
possibility of using OPF residues as organic mulches for the weed management
programme (Dilipkumar et al. 2015). Further study by Chuah et al.
(2018) revealed that the residue of OPF have the potential to reduce the
application rate of herbicide S-metolachlor without compromising on the
excellent control obtained in combating the herbicide-resistant biotypes of E. indica. However, to date, there is
still limited study on a combination of biological and chemcial methods for E.
indica control.
Determining the impact of herbicides on fungal
pathogens is a key factor in developing integrated weed control strategies
(Charudattan 2001). When applied sequentially or as tank mixture, herbicides
with synergistic potential cannot be harmful to fungal pathogen spores and
mycelium (Hoagland 1996). Herbicides have been thoroughly investigated as
methods for combining mycoherbicides to improve the efficacy of weed
management. Peng and Wolf (2011) documented that herbicide have been shown to
disrupt protective mechanisms of weeds, rendering them more vulnerable to
mycoherbicide infections.
Bipolaris setariae, Pyricularia grisea (Figliola et al. 1988), Phoma
herbarum and Bipolaris sorokiniana (Maizatul-Suriza et al. 2017)
and Bipolaris bicolor have all been isolated from diseased E. indica
(Fakri et al. 2019). Pathogenicity tests revealed that Bipolaris
sorokiniana infected E. indica on day five after artificial
inoculation and had the highest disease severity as compared to P. herbarum
and C. aeria after 40 days of treatment (Ismail et al. 2020),
none of these fungal pathogens, however, have been evaluated in conjunction with herbicides to
combat E. indica. The genus Bipolaris consists of a variety of
well-known fungal pathogens that are found all over the world. Leaf spots, leaf
blight, dense melting, lateral root rots, and other disease symptoms are common
in this species, particularly in crop fields for the Poaceae family, which
includes rice, corn, wheat, and sorghum (Berbee et
al. 1999).
For all pathogens, there is no universal chemical
synergist (Hoagland 1996). There is also a lack of studies on the interactions
of herbicides with E. indica-fungal pathogens. Thus, the goals of this
study were to 1) assess in vitro compatibility between Bipolaris
bicolor and three selected herbicides and 2) evaluate the in vivo
efficacy of a combination of B. bicolor and a selected herbicide on inhibition
of E. indica seedling.
Materials and Methods
Isolation of putative Bipolaris bicolor
The putative Bipolaris bicolor was isolated from diseased E.
indica plants based on the modified method of Maizatul-Suriza et al.
(2017). Leaf samples of E. indica infected with leaf spot disease were
collected 4 meters apart from each other in corn fields at Research Farm, Bukit
Kor campus, University of Malaysia Terengganu. The leaf samples were cut into
0.5 cm × 0.5 cm squares using a sterilized scalpel in a designated leaf region
(two-thirds of contaminated area, one-thirds of healthy tissue). For 5 min, the
samples were surface sterilized in sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)
(10–20% Chlorox). In sterile conditions, the selected
leaf samples were surface-dried on sterilized filter paper. The leaf samples
were put in a petri dish with potato dextrose agar (PDA) media, sealed with
parafilm and incubated at room temperature for 10 days at 27°C. To obtain the
pure culture, actively growing mycelium was sub-cultured onto fresh PDA using a
sterilized cork borer or scalpel. After 15 days of incubation, the developing
mycelium was looped, then placed on a microscope slide and covered with a cover
slip to observe the morphology of the spore under 400× magnification.
Identification of putative Bipolaris
bicolor
The total genomic DNA was extracted from overnight culture of fungi
isolates using DNeasy Plant Mini kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany). Fragment of the
gene of interest, was amplified using standard PCR protocol and the universal
primers with Thermal Cycler machine. Then, the PCR products was analysed by
electrophoresis on a 1% agarose gel, stain with SYBR Safe DNA gel stain. The
bands were visualized under Life Technologies E-Gel Imager (Thermo Fisher
Scientific, Inc., United States). The PCR products were then further
analysed by Apical Scientific Sdn. Bhd. Sequence similarity was estimated by
searching the homology in the GenBank DNA database and the National Centre for
Biotechnology Information (NCBI) using Basic Local Search Tool (BLAST).
Compatibility of Bipolaris bicolor and selected herbicides
The sub-cultured fungi were flooded with 0.8% Tween 80 solution and
scraped on the 15th day of incubation to carry spore into suspension
(Kimaru et al. 2018). To extract the spores, the suspension was filtered
through a double layer of muslin fabric. A haemocytometer was then used to
determine the spore concentration. The spore suspension at 1.7 x 108
spores/mL was mixed at one-fifteenth recommended rate with flumioxazin, sodium
chlorate, or ametryn. This herbicide rate was selected based on our preliminary
testing that revealed the chosen rate could provide partial injury to
goosegrass seedlings according to the method of Peng and Byer (2005). The
mixture was swabbed onto a PDA plate with a sterilized cotton swab and
incubated at 27°C for 3 days to see if mycelial growth was inhibited. Mycelial
growth was expressed as percent of inhibition. A 0.8% Tween 80 solution with
spore only acted as a negative control, while other treatments included 0.8%
Tween 80 solution containing spore mixed with flumioxazin, sodium chlorate, or
ametryn. The experiment was set up as a five-replicate complete randomized
design.
Inhibition of mycelial growth
was estimated as follows:
Inhibition area = MG – TMG × 100
MG
Where,
MG – Area of PDA plate covered by mycelium in control
TMG–Area of PDA
plate covered by mycelium in treatment
Post emergence application of ametryn in combination with Bipolaris
bicolor.
Seeds of glyphosate-resistant biotypes of E. indica were provided
by Dr. Cha Thye San (Franci et al. 2020), scarified by using
sandpaper and soaked overnight with 0.2% potassium nitrate. The seeds were
planted in trays with commercial soil potting mixture (28 cm × 56 cm). E.
indica reached the 3 to 4-leaf stage after two weeks. The seedlings were
transplanted into a 6 × 9-inch polybag filled with a 3:2:1 mixture of topsoil,
cow dung and sand. Using a hand sprayer, E. indica seedlings were
sprayed with 2 mL of 0.8% Tween 80 solution, B. bicolor spore suspension
at 1.7 × 108 spores/mL, ametryn at one over fifteen recommended rate
or a combination of the spore suspension and ametryn. To serve as an adjuvant,
10% edible palm oil was combined with all treatments. The in vivo
experiment was arranged as complete randomized
block design with five replicates. After spraying leaf greenness was measured
using SPAD meter while plant height of E. indica was accessed daily for
one week. The leaf greenness was expressed as a SPAD value. One week after
treatments, the shoot dry weight of E. indica seedlings was determined.
Each plant was carefully removed, washed under running water, and cut to
separate the shoot from the root. The above-ground tissues of the plants were
then dried for one week at 60°C in a digital oven.
The following formula was used to measure the dry
weight reduction of the shoot (Chuah et al. 2008a).
Shoot
dry weight reduction =
100-[(treated
shoot dry weight/untreated shoot dry weight) × 100)]
Colby's approach is a useful method for evaluating the efficacy of
pathogen-herbicide combinations (Peng and Byer 2005). The shoot dry weight
reduction of E. indica seedlings was used to assess the association of
the natural mycoherbicide, B. bicolor with ametryn. The interaction was
considered synergistic when the actual percentage shoot dry weight reduction
was at least 5% greater than predicted. The relationship was classified as
additive or antagonistic if the change was less than 5% or the actual
percentage shoot dry weight reduction was lower than predicted (Grant et al.
1990).
The equation used for calculating the expected
response was as follows (Colby 1967):
E = 100
- [(100 - x) × (100 - y)/100)]
Where,
E = Expected response of shoot dry weight reduction as a percentage of
control
x = Shoot dry weight reduction as
a percentage of control from ametryn treatment
y = Shoot dry weight reduction as
a percentage of control from B. bicolor treatment
Mycelia growth inhibition data were analysed using a one-way ANOVA.
Tukey's Honestly Significant Difference test was used to compare means at a 5%
level of significance. The shoot dry weight reduction data was transformed into
an arcsine square root. Data of plant height, leaf greenness, and transformed
shoot dry weight reduction data before subjected to a one-way ANOVA, with means
compared using Tukey's Honestly Significant Difference test at a significance
level of 5%.
Results
Isolation and identification of Bipolaris
bicolor
Two strains of fungal pathogens (BR and BF) were successfully isolated
from E. indica and identified as Bipolaris bicolor. All samples
were blasted from NCBI and showed high similarity ranging from 99.46 to 99.65%
from all GenBank descendent throughout world region. Bipolaris bicolor
strain CPC 28825 (Accession Number: MF490805.1), which was isolated from the
Poaceae family in Thailand, had 99.65% similarity to strain BF. Meanwhile,
strain BR was found to be 99.65% similar to B. bicolor strain CPC 28811
(Accession Number: MF490804.1), which was isolated from E. indica in
Thailand (Table 1). Thus, the strain BR was chosen to be studied in the
following experiments. After 15th days of growth in PDA, the
morphology of mature B. bicolor spore was observed (Fig. 1). The spores
of B. bicolor are 1.006 mm long, oblong in shape, and have 2 to 3 septa
in the centre at 400× magnification. The spore has septa and is flat, upright,
and rarely branched.
Effects of selected herbicides on mycelial growth inhibition of Bipolaris
bicolor
Fig. 2 presents the inhibitory effects of flumioxazin, sodium chlorate,
and ametryn on B. bicolor mycelial growth in vitro. These herbicides
were tested on B. bicolor mycelial growth at a concentration of
one-fifth of their respective recommended rates. Flumioxazin was found to be
the most phytotoxic herbicide to the B. bicolor fungal pathogen,
followed by sodium chlorate and ametryn. Flumioxazin inhibited mycelial growth
by 80%, while ametryn inhibited mycelial growth by 10%. This result suggests
that ametryn is the most compatible herbicide with B. bicolor for
integrated management of E. indica using B. bicolor as a
biocontrol agent.
Efficacy of a combination of Bipolaris bicolor and ametryn
for inhibition of E. indica seedling
Fig. 3 shows
the height of E. indica
seedlings after being treated with ametryn, B. bicolor spore suspension,
or a combination of B. bicolor spore suspension and ametryn for seven
days. Both ametryn and B. bicolor alone, as well as a combination of the
two, were phytotoxic to E. indica
seedlings, with plant height reaching a plateau on day 3 after treatment and
thereafter, implying that treated E.
indica seedling’s growth was stunted. Non-treated plants, on
the other hand, grew steadily in height from day 3 to day 7. The non-treated
plants reached a maximum height of 10.2 cm, while the plants treated with B.
bicolor, ametryn, and B. bicolor in combination with ametryn reached
a maximum height of 5.2, 5.3 and 5.6 cm, respectively, on day 7 after
treatment. The Tukey test also showed that on days 5 and 7, after treatment,
there was a substantial difference in height between treated and non-treated
plants (P < 0.05). During the 7th
days evaluation period, however, there was no significant difference in height
between all treated plants (P > 0.05).
Table 1: Identification of Bipolaris bicolor using 16S rDNA sequencing by
depositing the sequences into GeneBank in NCBI
Strain |
Accession number |
ID from NCBI |
Source |
Origin |
Similarity (%) |
BF |
MF490805.1 |
Bipoaris bicolor strain CPC 28825 |
Poaceae |
Thailand |
99.65 |
KY047110.1 |
Bipolaris bicolor strain HMC3 |
Lolium perenne |
China |
99.64 |
|
KY047109.1 |
Bipolaris bicolor strain HMC2 |
Lolium perenne |
China |
99.64 |
|
KY047105.1 |
Bipolaris bicolor strain HMC1 |
Lolium perenne |
China |
99.64 |
|
MF490804.1 |
Bipolaris bicolor strain CPC 28811 |
Eleusine
indica |
Thailand |
99.47 |
|
BR |
MF490804.1 |
Bipolaris bicolor strain CPC 28811 |
Eleusine
indica |
Thailand |
99.65 |
MF490805.1 |
Bipoaris bicolor strain CPC 28825 |
Poaceae |
Thailand |
99.47 |
|
KY047110.1 |
Bipolaris bicolor strain HMC3 |
Lolium perenne |
China |
99.46 |
|
KY047109.1 |
Bipolaris bicolor strain HMC2 |
Lolium perenne |
China |
99.46 |
|
KY047105.1 |
Bipolaris bicolor strain HMC1 |
Lolium perenne |
China |
99.46 |
Fig. 3: Changes
in E. indica
seedlings height after subjected to ametryn, spore suspension of Bipolaris bicolor and
ametryn in combination with spore suspension of B.
bicolor throughout 7 days of experimental period.
Vertical bars represent standard deviation of mean. *Denotes significant
difference between treated and non-treated plants within the same day after analysed
by Tukey test at 5% of significance level
Fig. 4 depicts the greenness of E. indica leaves as measured by SPAD
after treatments with ametryn, B. bicolor spore suspension, and ametryn
in combination with B. bicolor spore suspension over the 7-day duration.
Both ametryn and B.
Fig. 1: Conidia (co), Conidiophore (cp) of Bipolaris
bicolor grown on a PDA plate at 26 ± 2°C
Fig. 2: Inhibitory effects of flumioxazin, sodium chlorate and
ametryn on mycelial growth of Bipolaris
bicolor three days after incubation at 26 ± 2°C.
Error bars represent the standard deviation of the mean. Mean followed by
similar letters have significant difference after analysed by Tukey test at 5%
of significant level
bicolor alone, as well
as a combination of the two, were found to be phytotoxic to E. indica seedlings. The amount of
chlorophyll present in treated plants decreased on day 3rd and
thereafter, with the combined treatment showing a faster decline than the other
treatment, indicating that all treatments were able to reduce the green colour
of leaf. The SPAD value for non-treated plants, on the other hand, remained
constant over the course of the 7th days assessment period. On days
5 and 7 after treatment, the Tukey test showed a substantial difference (P < 0.05) in SPAD value between
treated and non-treated plants. However, the SPAD values of all treated plants
did not vary significantly (P > 0.05)
over the course of the 7 days of experiment.
Fig. 4: Changes
in E. indica
SPAD value after exposure to ametryn, Bipolaris bicolor
spore suspension, and ametryn in combination with B.
bicolor spore suspension over a 7-day period. The
standard deviation of the mean is represented by vertical bars. *Denotes
significant difference between treated and non-treated plants within the same
day after analysed by Tukey test at 5% of significance level
Fig. 5: Shoot dry weight reduction of E. indica
seedlings at 7 days after subjected to ametryn, spore
suspension of Bipolaris bicolor
and ametryn in combination with spore
suspension of B. bicolor. Vertical bars
represent Standard deviation of mean. *Denotes significant difference between
treated and non-treated plants after analysed by Tukey test at 5% of
significance level
Fig.
5 shows the reduction in shoot dry weight of E. indica seedlings subjected to various treatments. At 7
days after treatment, the phytotoxic effects of ametryn alone, B. bicolor
spore suspension alone, and the combination of B. bicolor spore
suspension and ametryn varied significantly (P < 0.05) in reducing shoot dry weight of E. indica seedlings.
Discussion
Bipolaris bicolor has a wide range of distribution including Australia, India. Africa, Brazil, Canada, Cote d'Ivoire, Denmark, New
Zealand, Nigeria, Swaziland, Zimbabwe (Farr and Rossman 2013), China (Liang et al. 2019) and Thailand (Marin-Felix et al. 2017).
The fungal pathogen is commonly found in host plants from Poaceae such as Zea
mays, Eleusine coracana, Pennisetum clandestinum, Oryza sativa, Panicum
maximum, Sorghum vulgare, Triticum aestivum, Urochloa
panicoides and Zizania aquatica (Farr and Rossman 2013) and Eleusine
indica (Marin-Felix et al. 2017). The septation characteristics of B. bicolor
exhibited in this work are consistent with those found by Manamgoda et al.
(2014) who stated that the fungus produced a slightly cobwebby nearly black
growth in pure culture on PDA. However, B. bicolor colonisation was
fluffy, cottony, whitish dark grey, and undulated in the present study. This
fungal pathogen was first reported as causal agent of leaf spot disease on
rubber tree (Liang et al. 2019).
Fakri et al. (2019) reported that diuron is
more compatible with 0% inhibition than other herbicides including oxyfluorfen
and imazethapyr, which gave 90 and 50% inhibition of mycelial growth,
respectively, when tested on B. bicolor. Similarly, in comparison to
sodium chlorate and flumioxazin, ametryn inhibited mycelial growth of B.
bicolor the least. Both ametryn and diuron inhibit photosystem II in
plants, which is a similar mechanism of action. By contrast, flumioxazin had a
strong inhibitory effect on the fungal pathogen. Flumioxazin is a
photo-dependent peroxidising herbicide that inhibits protoporphyrinogen
oxidase, an essential enzyme in chlorophyll biosynthesis, causing photo-toxic
porphyrins to accumulate (Shaner 2014). Porphyrins are a common alternative to
traditional antibiotics, and they have already been shown to inhibit bacteria,
viruses, fungi, and protozoa in vitro (Singh et al. 2016).
On day 7th after treatment, the non-treated
plant had the highest SPAD value of 17.3, while the plants exposed to B.
bicolor plus ametryn had the lowest SPAD value of 1.4. The plants treated
with B. bicolor alone and those treated with ametryn alone had SPAD
values of 5.7 and 2.7, respectively. When E. indica seedlings were
treated with a combination of B. bicolor and ametryn on day 7th,
the chlorophyll in the leaves rapidly degraded, thereby leading to plant death.
Changes in photosynthesis were a major contributor to both impeded light
capture and decreased mesophyll carbon dioxide fixation, as shown by the lower
SPAD value. A similar symptom has been identified in the infectious phase of Bipolaris
oryzae in rice, which has harmed the physiology of the leaf, primarily due
to cell damage at the membrane level (Dallagnol et al. 2011).
The
findings of this study on reducing shoot dry weight of E. indica seedlings, agree with those
of Ismail et al. (2020), who found that the fungal pathogen Bipolaris
sorokiniana inhibited E. indica
development 40 days after treatment. They also reported that non-target plants
were not affected by B. sorokiniana, but the fungal pathogen consistently
infected E. indica.
Meanwhile, according to Rusli et al. (2015),
Phoma herbarum caused 80% of E. indica mortality 35 days after treatment.
The
combination of ametryn and B. bicolor inhibited the most, with 94%
inhibition, compared to ametryn alone and B. bicolor alone, which
inhibited 75 and 50%, respectively, based on shoot dry weight reduction of E. indica. For ametryn plus B.
bicolor treatment, the estimated dry weight reduction value was 88%. This
estimated value is 7% lower than the actual value of shoot dry weight
reduction, meaning that B. bicolor and ametryn work together
synergistically. Ametryn is a non-selective, systemic pre-emergence or
post-emergence herbicide that inhibits photosystem II at the chloroplast's
thylakoid membrane of plants. By binding to D-1 proteins, the herbicide
prevents electron transfer and can damage photosynthetic tissues by disrupting
the formation of cell membranes and pigments, resulting in nutrient leakage and
cellular dysfunction (Reade and Cobb 2002). In other words, ametryn may have
damaged E. indica
seedlings by compromising their defence mechanism, exposing them to infection
by the fungal pathogen, B. bicolor (Peng and Wolf 2011).
The present findings are consistent with those of Peng
and Byer (2005), who used the same multiplicative survival model (Colby 1967)
to investigate the synergy of fungal pathogen-herbicide interactions on green
foxtail. According to Peng and Byer (2005), propanil and quinclorac interacted
synergistically with Pyricularia setariae, resulting in a pattern of
increased effectiveness and nearly 100% mortality on green foxtail. Peng and
Wolf (2011) looked at a variety of herbicides in conjunction with the fungal
pathogen Colletotrichum truncatum and discovered that herbicides including
2,4-D, MCPA, clopyralid, and metribuzin greatly synergized the fungus on
scentless chamomile.
Conclusion
It is clearly indicated that ametryn was the most compatible herbicide
because it had the lowest inhibitory effect on Bipolaris bicolor. Subsequent
greenhouse study revealed that that B. bicolor in combination with
ametryn acted synergistically and inhibited the glyphosate-resistant biotype of
E. indica seedlings, with the treated plants showing a dramatic and
greater reduction in shoot growth as compared to those provided by single
application of ametryn or B. bicolor. However, the efficacy of ametryn
combined with B. bicolor is possibly affected by growth stage of E.
indica and environmental factors, glasshouse findings cannot be
specifically extrapolated to field conditions. Further research is needed to
determine whether the combination of ametryn and B. bicolor can control
mature E. indica in the field.
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by Universiti Putra Malaysia (Vot number: 100-IRMI/GOV
16/6/2 (018/2018).
Author Contributions
ZS, MSAH, and CTS designed the research flow; MAF and NFG performed the
research and wrote the manuscript. MAF and CTS edited the manuscript.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Data Availability
Data presented in this study will be available on a reasonable request
Ethics Approval
Ethical approval is not applicable in this study.
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